Political Philosophy Research : Aristotle

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Life of Aristotle

The Works of Aristotle

Political Philosophy of Aristotle


Introduction

Undoubtedly one of the greatest philosophers history has produced, Aristotle developed the first truly systematic philosophies that have touched on every aspect of life. He left the world with over 200 different works, of which thirty-one still survive. These treatises on various subjects had a profound impact on the way different societies in history viewed life. Notably, his works on politics have set standards for analyzing internal political regimes throughout history. His works on metaphysics played a central role in the doctrines of St. Thomas Aquinas, who greatly impacted the Catholic Church beginning in the 13th Century. Aristotle's logic defined the systematic processes of rational thought for two millennium. And perhaps the most astounding impact he has had is on the categorizing of what is now understood as science. His systematic philosophies planted the seed for the development of biology, physics and to a lesser extent, mathematics.


Life of Aristotle

Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in a well-connected family of the small city of Stagira, located on the Chalcidic peninsula in the Macedonian region of northeastern Greece. Aristotle's father Nicomachus was a court physician to Amyntas III of Macedon and was likely a good friend and adviser to the king. It is evident that Aristotle stayed in the region until he was seventeen, at which point, he moved to Athens for the purpose of pursuing a strong education and perhaps, the escape of political turbulence that was affecting Macedonia at the time.


Once in Athens, Aristotle joined the Platonic Academy where he studied under the direction of Plato. Aristotle was an associate of the Academy for twenty years, he ended his studies at the Academy upon the death of Plato in 347 B.C. Plato undoubtedly had a great influence on Aristotle, but this relationship was not without disagreement on fundamental philosophical ideas.


After Plato's death, his nephew Speusippus became the new leader of the Academy. It is often speculated that Aristotle was dissatisfied with the choice for succession and decided to leave for Asia Minor. However, political events may have also had an impact on Aristotle's decision. Ten years prior, a new king of Macedonia began solidifying power and brought internal stability to the kingdom. About the time of Aristotle's departure from Athens, King Philip had brought all of the cities of northern Greece under his control, and it is likely that anti-Macedonian sentiments filled the city of Athens at the time.


Aristotle spent five years in Asia Minor and his first place of residence was Assos. His attraction to the city was likely due to its educational opportunities; Two former members of the Platonic Academy, Erastus and Coriscus, started a school under the authority of the local ruler Hermias of Atareus. Hermias was a former slave who remarkably rose through the ranks before taking power in Atareus. Aristotle became a close confident of his and eventually married his niece and adopted daughter Pythias when he moved to the nearby city of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos in 343 B.C.


Aristotle spent just a short amount of time in Mytilene before being summoned by King Philip of Macedon to oversee the education of his thirteen-year-old son Alexander (the Great). Within two years, however, Alexander was very much involved in the affairs of the kingdom and became deputy military commander for his father. Although it is tempting for historians to find a connection of great influence between Aristotle and the young Alexander, one does not seem to be likely. Because there is little information available about Aristotle's endeavors at the time, one cannot come to a definitive conclusion.


In 335 B.C., Aristotle returned to Athens permanently. Although the next decade would become destabilizing as King Philip and Alexander continued an imperialistic foreign policy and an expansion of the kingdom's influence, the city of Athens was spared great turmoil and remained an independent city with a democratic regime. The relative calm within the city made it possible for Aristotle to found his own school of philosophy, which was called the Lyceum. At this school, he was able to implement a curriculum of systematic research and teaching that touched on all areas of knowledge. It was Aristotle's work at the Lyceum that scholars contribute many of his treatises to.


The tranquility that Athens enjoyed during these years came to an end in 323 B.C. when Alexander died. His death led to an anti-Macedonian uprising within the city, and because of Aristotle's heritage and his history of working for King Philip and Alexander, Aristotle feared for his safety. The city accused Aristotle of impiety and he fled to the island of Euboea. He remarked that he did not wish Athens to sin against philosophy a second time, in reference to the execution of Socrates. It was just the following year, however, that Aristotle died of natural causes in the city of Chalcis.


The Works of Aristotle: an overview

Of the estimated 200 works that Aristotle produced, 31 are still in existence today. After Aristotle's death in 322 B.C., his work was kept in the care of the new head of the Lyceum, Theophrastus. Theophrastus kept the works with his own at his library. From there it was given to a man named Neleus who may have moved the works out of the city of Athens. Popular tradition teaches that it was hidden in a damp cellar and neglected by Neleus' heirs and was rediscovered around 100 B.C. From there his works were then edited heavily by Aristotelian scholars who filled in the blanks of deteriorating documents. However, evidence shows that certain documents were in circulation prior to the so-called rediscovery of the documents. At any event, many of the works of Aristotle were lost, some that survived are incomplete, and others were collected, sorted, and published in arrangements differing from the original structures. Although some of the documents have had some editing, most is considered to be minor and is not believed to be in such a fashion that would distort the content and meaning of Aristotle's treatises.


Scholars have separated Aristotle's works into three categories: dialogues and works for popular audiences, collections of scientific data, and systematic works mostly in the form of lecture notes intended for the students of the Lyceum. Of these, most of the works that have survived were lecture notes and unfinished writings. Therefore, many of his treatises were assembled by Aristotle's successors and scholars of a later time in history. These works are not considered to be of his popular dialogues that Cicero referred to as being greater than that of Plato. Instead, much of what has survived does not read with the elegance that one might expect after having read Plato's dialogues.


Although a student of Plato's for twenty years, Aristotle's philosophy would take a fundamentally different approach. In many ways his perspectives were exactly opposite to that of Plato. Although both philosophers sought universal concepts, Aristotle's approach sought to find universals within phenomena (things within the world as we see it) as a means of explaining what he would refer to as the knowledge of “essences” or being. Contrarily, Plato sought the universal concepts, or rather the “idea” of things, as a means of explaining phenomena. Aristotle believed that universals were found in particular things, whereas Plato saw the universals as separate from phenomena and particular things. Plato sought the ideals of the world in reflection of a higher existence, while Aristotle sought the particulars of the world to reveal and prove to exist what cannot be revealed through intuition. Aristotle's philosophy is thus rational and scientific (in the modern sense of the word).


Aristotle's systematic treatises that have survived are grouped into four categories: Theoretical philosophy, practical philosophy, productive philosophy, and in a broad sense, logic. His theoretical treatises encompass the subjects of metaphysics and theology, the science of the soul, mathematics, physics and biology. Practical philosophy centers on ethics and political science. Productive philosophy includes rhetoric, poetics, and the arts. Lastly, Aristotle's logic is the first systematic attempt at capturing how humans reason, and thus, affects all other categories of knowledge.


In theoretical philosophy, the sciences are analyzed. Metaphysics is considered by Aristotle as the “First Philosophy,” and is regarded as the "Science of Being." Whereas other sciences study particulars of reality, for Aristotle, metaphysics is the science which seeks universal principles and causes of being (reality). Metaphysics explains how and why things are and the knowledge that it encompasses. In the science of physics, Aristotle conceptualized causes and effects and he postulated notions of motion, space and time. He understood that all affects of phenomena had a cause. If one was to rationalize the original cause which created the continual effects of phenomena, one would come to rationalize Being / God, the universal and principle cause of all things and a Being which had no cause.


In Aristotle's practical philosophies, he uses the science of ethics to inquire into man's happiness, which in turn determines the purpose of existence. He further argues that what makes men happy is based on what is good and proper to his rational nature. Through reason a man thus lives a virtuous life. Aristotle treats virtue as a perfecting of ones rational nature. He splits virtue into two categories: moral and intellectual. Moral virtue is understood as a balance of a person's natural faculties in a manner based on reason and prudence. In other words, a person's behaviors are defined by extremes, which are considered to be vices. For instance, a person who is deficient of courage is considered to be cowardice and a person who exhibits an excess of courage is considered to be rash. The moral virtue of courage is the balance between the two extremes; moral virtue is not universal but may be subjected to situations in which a man finds himself. Intellectual virtues, on the other hand, are forms of knowledge such as understanding, wisdom, and art, which are perfections of reason rather than sensual faculties which require the use of reason to moderate.


Political science is seen by Aristotle as not opposed to but rather an extension of ethics. This is understood in the concept of friendships. Aristotle argues that human beings are by nature social animals and this social need must be nurtured in order for man to achieve happiness. According to Aristotle, friendships are bonds between individuals and social societies, and happiness must be attained through a social and political dependency with each other. Therefore, friendships are the basis for political science. Like Plato, Aristotle believed that there is no perfect state; however, he criticized Plato's work as being impractical. Although Plato demonstrated the nature of various forms of states, Aristotle elaborated on specific regimes, their practicability, and how they affect society.


Aristotle's view of productive philosophy encompasses the arts, which is, simply put, the analysis of that which is beautiful. Aristotle recognized arts and poetry as encompassing the ideal reality. Although this reality is found in nature, Aristotle viewed the arts as imitating this idealism in a higher form. Because of its ability to transcend what is actual, Aristotle views poetry as being more philosophical than disciplines such as history, which documents actual facts rather than seeking realities of perfection.


Aristotle was the first to make a science of “logic.” Although his disciples saw logic as a preparatory instrument for scientific investigation, it seems Aristotle's use of the term was synonymous with “reason.” His systematic treatment of the laws of thought and reason in pursuit of knowledge was separated into six areas: Classification of notions, judgments and propositions, syllogism, demonstration, problematic syllogism and fallacies. Although this science is very significant and has had a great impact on philosophy and learning for over 2000 years, this subject is complex and goes beyond the scope and purpose of this article, which is to give a brief overview of Aristotle's philosophy, particularly with regard to political philosophy. For more information on logic, visit one of the encyclopedia websites listed in the sidebar.


Aristotle's Political Philosophy: a more detailed overview

As previously mentioned, Aristotle's political science derives from his practical philosophy and is understood as a science for not only explaining but also bettering the quality of life of human beings, which is directly related to his concept of 'happiness.' Like Plato, Aristotle finds the ethics and character of an individual and the human soul directly related to the nature and quality of the governing body of civil society. However, it seems Aristotle viewed Plato's analysis as impractical and lacking explanatory power. Aristotle's science becomes more systematic by linking the concept of the individual and the human soul to civil society via his conception of friendships. Aristotle viewed human beings as being naturally social and only through friendships could individuals achieve happiness, which is the end goal of virtue. The polis, which was a cit-state whose character was special to the time and place of Ancient Greece, is understood as the natural embodiment of the bonds which govern friendship.


In Aristotle's ethics, the goal of virtue is happiness and the only way of achieving virtue is through reason. Thus, Aristotle is able to link ethics and virtue directly to the character of the polis. Aristotle used the concepts of moral and intellectual virtue to justify not only the importance of the regime of the polis, but also which regimes would be the best for nurturing the virtue and happiness of civil society. For instance, we have already discussed the relative reality of moral virtue and that a balance between extremes is necessary of attaining the good, which is happiness. It is relative because each situation requires a different balance between extremes to create a just outcome. By applying moral virtue to the governing body, one must take into account the character of both the friendships of the civil society and the regime. What may be a virtuous balance in one polis may in fact be a vice in another polis.


By making this correlation, Aristotle views the identification and application of the governing body, or rather the regime, as essential to achieving virtue and thus nurturing reason within civil society. In making this concession, Aristotle admits that there is not a perfect polis, nor a perfect regime. Aristotle classifies political regimes into six categories: Kingship, tyranny, aristocracy, oligarchy, polity, and democracy. He further classifies these regimes according to number of rulers. Kingship and tyranny are ruled by one, aristocracy and oligarchy are ruled by a few, and polity and democracy are ruled by many. What distinguishes the regimes is their virtue. Kingship, aristocracy, and polity are the correct regimes and are considered virtuous. Whereas tyranny, oligarchy and democracy are deviant.


The application of virtue within a regime is based on the principles of distributive justice. Aristotle maintains that the act of applying justice is treating equal persons equally and unequal persons unequally. In other words, benefits from a regime should be distributed based on merit. Aristotle considers the oligarchy deviant because it classifies superiority not on merit but rather, on wealth. Democracies, which are run by the poor, give equal treatment to those who are not equal and undeserving of the beneficial treatment of the government. Oligarchs believe the ends for a city-state is its wealth and democrats believe it is for the promotion of equality. However, the real end is Aristotle's concept of happiness, or the good life.


Aristotle maintains that the best form of regime is an aristocracy. He defines an aristocracy as being the rule of the best people, and a kingship is nothing more than a limitation of that regime. Lastly, he defines polity as being a mixed regime, which would be made up of the best people suited for governance. Although the actual implementation of such regimes may not be ideal and would not necessarily conform to the moral virtue previously outlined, Aristotle's conclusion on the best kinds of regimes are made in light of intellectual virtue, which formulates the best form of government for the purpose of meeting the virtuous ends of the polis. However, Aristotle recognizes that such regimes may not always be achievable.


Although much has been discussed in this overview and is meant for a general understanding of the broad concepts of Aristotle's philosophy, there is still many aspects of his philosophy that have not been discussed. A read of a good copy of Aristotle's Politics and Nicomachean Ethics, that which adheres to a strictly literal translation, and perhaps a couple interpretive essays that may have differing perspectives, is highly recommended.